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Legal IT

Law Firms and Cryptocurrencies

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In the past, we have looked at blockchain, the technology that underlies cryptocurrencies, and at how blockchain is relevant to law firms. In this article, we have a closer look at the relationship between law firms and cryptocurrencies. We explain what they are and explore the challenges regarding law firms and cryptocurrencies. We also look at the legal services law firms can offer.

What are cryptocurrencies?

Wikipedia defines a cryptocurrency as “a digital currency designed to work as a medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it.”

Cryptocurrencies are decentralized digital currencies. They use blockchain technology to secure transactions and control the creation of new units. Unlike traditional currencies issued by governments, cryptocurrencies operate on a peer-to-peer network. This allows users to transfer ownership of cryptographic units without the need for a trusted third party, such as a bank. Transactions made with cryptocurrencies are recorded on a public ledger called the blockchain, which ensures transparency and security.

The first and most well-known cryptocurrency is Bitcoin, launched in 2009. It paved the way for thousands of alternative cryptocurrencies, known as altcoins, each with unique features and purposes. The most used cryptocurrency is Ethereum. It is popular in the legal and commercial world because it is being used in smart contracts.

Wikipedia lists six conditions to qualify as a cryptocurrency:

  1. The system does not require a central authority; its state is maintained through distributed consensus.
  2. The system keeps an overview of cryptocurrency units and their ownership.
  3. The system defines whether new cryptocurrency units can be created. If new cryptocurrency units can be created, the system defines the circumstances of their origin and how to determine the ownership of these new units.
  4. Ownership of cryptocurrency units can be proved exclusively cryptographically.
  5. The system allows transactions to be performed in which ownership of the cryptographic units is changed. A transaction statement can only be issued by an entity proving the current ownership of these units.
  6. If two different instructions for changing the ownership of the same cryptographic units are simultaneously entered, the system performs at most one of them.

Challenges regarding law firms and cryptocurrencies

Law firms wanting to deal with cryptocurrencies face several challenges. These may apply to the law firms themselves as well as to their clients. Let us have a closer look.

A first challenge is regulatory uncertainty.  The legal and regulatory environment surrounding cryptocurrencies is quite intricate. Law firms can advise on compliance with securities, commodities, tax, anti-money laundering, and banking laws and regulations. The challenge is that the regulations for cryptocurrencies vary widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some countries, cryptocurrencies are embraced and regulated like any other financial asset, while in others, they face severe restrictions or outright bans. (Wikipedia provides an overview of the legality of cryptocurrencies in different countries and territories). On top of that, the legal landscape is also continually evolving. Law firms must therefore stay abreast of these shifting regulatory landscapes to provide accurate advice to their clients.

A second challenge has to do with compliance with anti-money laundering requirements. Cryptocurrencies are often associated with anonymity. This has raised concerns about their potential use in illegal activities such as money laundering and terrorism financing. Law firms must assist clients in navigating anti-money laundering requirements to ensure compliance with local and international laws.

Next, there are taxation Issues. The tax treatment of cryptocurrencies can be complex and varies significantly by jurisdiction. Law firms can help clients understand and comply with tax obligations, whether it involves capital gains tax, income tax, or value-added tax (VAT) on cryptocurrency transactions.

There also are Intellectual Property (IP) rights to consider. The blockchain technology has led to the creation of numerous innovations, many of which may be subject to intellectual property protection. Law firms play a crucial role in helping clients secure and enforce IP rights in the crypto space.

Another challenging area that is of specific interest for lawyers is dispute resolution. As with any financial asset, disputes can arise in the cryptocurrency space. These can be related, e.g., to transactions, smart contracts, or initial coin offerings (ICOs). Law firms must be equipped to handle these disputes, which may involve complex issues of jurisdiction, contract law, and technology.

Finally, there are ethical considerations. Law firms must comply with the ethical requirements of their bar associations. Specific rules may apply as to what is allowed and what isn’t.

Legal services regarding cryptocurrencies

With all the challenges listed above, it should come as no surprise that there are corresponding services lawyers can offer. Let’s have a closer look.

Law firms can provide compliance and regulatory advice to ensure that cryptocurrency-related activities comply with applicable laws. This includes advising on the compliance of tokens and coins with securities laws, exchange licensing, and the creation and management of smart contracts. Firms also assist with the formation of cryptocurrency-focused funds, reviewing fund offering materials, and advising on tax implications.

An obvious service law firms can offer is dispute resolution and litigation. This includes resolving disputes between customers and cryptocurrency exchanges, as well as issues like locked accounts and frozen assets. Law firms also handle litigation and fraud cases, including recovering stolen digital assets and addressing business and investment fraud. When disputes arise in the cryptocurrency space, law firms provide representation in court or through alternative dispute resolution mechanisms such as arbitration or mediation. They can also represent clients in investigations by various government agencies and provide defence in civil disputes.

Law firms can offer advisory services for innovators and investors. This can include advice on intellectual property protection, company formation, and tax planning. As mentioned above, they can also help with compliance with regulatory and licensing obligations and security and privacy reviews. For investors, law firms can develop tax-effective ownership structures and advise on the taxation of trading gains and income from activities like staking and lending.

Another area consists of specialized services for Digital Assets and Web3. Law firms are at the forefront of advising on new digital assets, cryptocurrencies, NFTs, and blockchain-based protocols. They work with venture capital and investment funds, tech companies, exchanges, and decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). This includes engaging with regulatory bodies worldwide to advocate for clients in the digital asset and Web3 ecosystem.

Whether it’s an ICO, a cryptocurrency exchange, or a blockchain-based startup, law firms can help structure transactions to ensure they comply with legal requirements.

A service that is quite commonly offered these days is drafting and reviewing contracts. Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code. They are a cornerstone of blockchain technology. Law firms are instrumental in drafting and reviewing these contracts.

Law firms can also help facilitate technical integration. Law firms are increasingly using blockchain technology to enhance efficiency and verify transactions. The use of smart contracts is growing. Law firms can advise on their implementation and legal bindingness. Distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) offer potential cost and time savings, which makes them attractive for various legal applications.

Beyond compliance and transactions, law firms offer strategic advice to clients on how to navigate the rapidly evolving landscape of digital assets. This includes advising on risk management, investment strategies, and potential regulatory changes.

Law firms and cryptocurrencies: conclusion

Like many new technologies, cryptocurrencies come with a wide range of challenges and opportunities. Law firms that start focusing on cryptocurrencies can gain a competitive edge through specialization, thought leadership, cross-border work, and collaboration with Technology Experts.

 

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Legal IT

Token Economics for Lawyers – part 1

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In this article as well as the next, we have a look at token economics. Now, the expression “token economics” can mean different things depending on the context. What these two articles are about is tokens as digital assets. It is not about token economics in the context of behavioural therapy. (Which is what the entry in the Wikipedia entry is about. So, that may be confusing). In this article, we will discuss definitions of tokens and token economics. We will answer the question “what are digital tokens used for?”. We will also talk about some of the legal issues of token economics, and finally look at the relevance of token economics for lawyers. In the follow-up article, we will focus on the values of tokens as digital assets.

Definitions of tokens and token economics

In today’s digital world, tokens have become a buzzword among investors, entrepreneurs, and businesses. From cryptocurrencies to utility tokens, the rise of tokens has created a new economy where the value of tokens is determined by a complex interplay of supply and demand.

So, what are we talking about? Let’s start with tokens and give an example that everybody probably is familiar with. If you go to a casino, you don’t play with real money. Instead, you exchange real money for tokens, and each token has a specific monetary value. While you are playing, you are using tokens. When you leave, you can exchange the tokens again for real money. A token therefore is something that symbolizes or represents something else.

In the context of token economics, tokens are digital assets, and they are typically created and managed through blockchain technology. They are unique assets that can represent a wide range of things, from cryptocurrencies to loyalty points to real-world assets like stocks and commodities. The key feature of tokens is their ability to store value and be traded freely on digital marketplaces. This means that tokens can be bought and sold like any other asset, allowing investors to benefit from price movements and businesses to raise funds through initial coin offerings (ICOs).

The article on the ESPEO Blockchain website defines token economics as “the study of a new type of economy that can be defined as the design of a particular ecosystem in a blockchain environment. There are as many ecosystems as startups and projects in the blockchain industry, where tokenization is a popular process.” In this context, the expression “token economics” is often shortened to tokenomics.

What are digital tokens used for?

Digital tokens can be used in a variety of ways, depending on the type of token. Some common uses include:

  • Currency: Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum are tokens that are used as a medium of exchange. They can be used to purchase goods and services or traded for other currencies.
  • Utility Tokens: Utility tokens are tokens that are used to access a particular product or service. For example, a company may create a token that can be used to access their platform or to pay for a specific service.
  • Security Tokens: Security tokens represent ownership of an asset, like stocks, bonds, or real estate. They are governed by securities regulations and offer investors the opportunity to earn dividends or other forms of income.
  • Fungible and non-fungible tokens:
    • Fungible tokens are interchangeable with other tokens of the same type, meaning that each token has the same value and can be exchanged for another token without any loss of value. For example, a 5€ bill is a fungible token, because any two 5€ bills have the same value and can be exchanged for one another without any loss of value.
    • Non-fungible tokens, NFTs, on the other hand, are unique and cannot be exchanged for another token without a loss of value. Each token represents a specific asset, such as a piece of artwork or a collectible item and has its own unique value. For example, a unique piece of digital art might be represented as a non-fungible token. (We talked about non-fungible tokens in a previous article).

Top of Form

Legal issues of token economics

As tokens are assets, there are several legal challenges and issues regarding token economics that one should be aware of.

One of the main challenges is the regulatory uncertainty surrounding tokens. In our article on NFTs, e.g., we mentioned the issues about whether or when NFTs become securities. Depending on their economic characteristics, tokens may be subject to various regulatory regimes, including securities laws, commodities laws, or money transmission laws. This can make it difficult for issuers and investors to navigate the legal landscape and comply with applicable regulations.

Another issue is the potential for fraudulent or abusive practices in token offerings or trading. Due to the lack of regulation and oversight in some token markets, there have been cases of fraud, market manipulation, and other forms of misconduct. Lawyers may need to advise clients on how to comply with anti-fraud laws and regulations, as well as how to mitigate legal risks associated with token-based transactions.

Additionally, there are intellectual property issues related to token economics, particularly with respect to the ownership and licensing of the underlying technology and protocols that support token ecosystems. Lawyers may need to advise clients on patent, copyright, and trademark issues related to token-related technologies, as well as on licensing and commercialization strategies.

Finally, there are data privacy and cybersecurity concerns associated with token transactions, which can be particularly acute in decentralized networks where personal data is stored and transmitted across multiple nodes. Lawyers may need to advise clients on how to comply with data protection.

Relevance for lawyers

So, how are token economics relevant to lawyers?

As mentioned above, token economics can impact the regulatory treatment of tokens. For example, if a token is classified as a security, it may be subject to more stringent regulations than if it is classified as a utility token. Lawyers may need to be familiar with the various factors that determine the classification of a token, such as its economic purpose, distribution, and governance.

Secondly, lawyers may need to understand token economics to advise clients on the legal implications of launching a token-based project or participating in a token sale. This could include drafting legal documents such as token purchase agreements, whitepapers, or terms of service that incorporate the economic features of the token.

Thirdly, token economics can affect the way that tokens are valued and traded in the market. Lawyers may need to understand the mechanics of token supply, demand, and circulation to advise clients on issues such as token pricing, market manipulation, or insider trading. We will discuss those in our next article.

Finally, token economics is a rapidly evolving field that requires interdisciplinary knowledge and collaboration between legal and technical experts. Lawyers who are familiar with token economics may be better positioned to engage with clients in emerging sectors such as decentralized finance (DeFi) or non-fungible tokens (NFTs), where the legal implications of token economics are still being defined.

Conclusion

Tokens are digital assets that are typically created and managed through blockchain technology. They are assets that can represent a wide range of things, from cryptocurrencies to loyalty points to real-world assets like stocks and commodities. They can be used in a variety of ways, including as currency, utility tokens, and security tokens. As the digital world continues to evolve, the importance of tokens in the economy is likely to grow. By understanding token economics and the value of tokens, lawyers can assist their clients in making informed decisions and navigating this new landscape with confidence.

 

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Legal IT

Legal Technology Predictions for 2023

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Towards the end of every calendar year, the American Bar Association publishes the results of its annual legal technology survey. Several legal service providers, experts, and reporters, too, analyse existing trends and subsequently make their own legal technology predictions for 2023. Some items stand out that most pay attention to. In this article, we will look at automation, artificial intelligence, cloud-native solutions, virtual legal assistants, data privacy and cybersecurity, crypto technologies, blockchain, and smart contracts. We will briefly pay attention to some other trends, as well.

Automation

Automation keeps being a major driver of change in many industries. The legal sector is no exception, even though it lags compared to many other sectors. Lawyers seem to take longer to catch up that automation is beneficial. It is making many processes in the legal industry faster, more efficient, and less expensive. Automation has proven to be successful in fields like legal research, e-discovery and document review and management. In 2023, we can expect to see this trend continue, with a renewed focus on automating the law firm administration and on the creation and review of legal documents. Automated workflows can be used to streamline legal processes, such as litigation support, e-discovery, and case management. Automation can also assist in organizing and tracking progress and regulatory changes, data collection, reporting, and communication. An increase in automation will help to improve the accuracy of legal processes, reducing the risk of errors, and increasing efficiency.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is becoming ubiquitous. In many aspects of our lives, there now are AI solutions available that make life easier. In the legal sector, too, AI is starting to make waves. In all the above-mentioned examples of automation, AI is playing a crucial role. As mentioned above, AI has already been successfully assisting lawyers with legal research, with process and workflow automation, with the generation of legal documents, as well as with e-discovery. But those are still fairly simple applications of AI. It can do far more. These days, AI is also being used to digest vast volumes of text and voice conversations, identify patterns, or carry out impressive feats of predictive modelling. The virtual legal assistants that we’ll discuss below, too, are all AI applications. If properly used, AI can save law firms much time and money. In 2023, we can expect to see a more widespread adoption of AI in the legal sector. (More on Artificial Intelligence and the Law).

Cloud-Native Solutions

Cloud computing has been a game-changer for many industries. Previous reports had already revealed that lawyers, too, are more and more relying on cloud solutions. This should not come as a surprise, as Cloud-based solutions provide many benefits, including reduced costs, increased scalability, and improved data security. They help lawyers and clients share files and data across disparate platforms rather than relying solely on emails. Additionally, cloud-based solutions are more accessible, allowing legal firms to work from anywhere and collaborate more effectively with clients and other stakeholders. In 2023, we can expect this trend to continue. (In the past, we have published articles on cloud solutions for lawyers, on managing your law firm in the cloud, an on lawyers in the cloud).

Virtual Legal Assistants (VLAs)

In the past, we have talked on several occasions about legal chatbots. Chatbots have sufficiently matured to now start playing the role of virtual legal assistants. VLAs are AI-powered chatbots that build on basic neural network computing models to harness the power of deep learning. They use artificial intelligence algorithms to assist law firms with various tasks. Gartner predicts VLAs can answer one-quarter of internal requests made to legal departments. They extend the operational capacity of law firms as well as of in-house corporate legal teams. As a result, they assist in reducing lawyers’ average response time and producing distinct service delivery efficiencies. Furthermore, as VLAs are a form of automation, all the benefits of automation apply here too: virtual legal assistants can help to improve the accuracy of legal work, reduce the risk of errors and increase efficiency. At present, virtual legal assistants are still primarily being used in uncomplicated and repetitive operations. Recent breakthroughs, however, indicate that they are already able to take on more complex tasks and will continue to do so.

Data Privacy and Cybersecurity

Ever since the GDPR, data privacy and cybersecurity have become increasingly important. In 2023, we can expect to see an ongoing emphasis on data privacy and as well as an increase in attention to cybersecurity in the legal sector. (The examples of high-profile Big Tech corporations receiving massive fines seem to be a good incentive). Law firms have understood that they too need to make sure that they have robust data privacy and cybersecurity measures in place to protect their clients’ confidential information. Several law firms also provide their clients assistance with the legal aspects of data protection.

Crypto technologies, Blockchain, and smart contracts

The market of cryptocurrencies was volatile in 2022. That did not stop an increase in interest in the underlying crypto technologies. Experts predict rises in a) regulation of cryptocurrencies and crypto technologies, in b) the adoption of cryptocurrency, c) a growing interest in decentralized finance (DeFi), and d) an increase in attempts at cryptocurrency taxation. We are already witnessing an intensification in litigation with regard to cryptocurrency and crypto technologies. This trend is expected to continue. Litigation about NFTs, e.g., is one of the areas where litigation is expected to rapidly increase.

Experts also expect an ongoing interest in and an increased adoption of Blockchain technology. Blockchain can be used to securely store and manage legal data, reducing the risk of data breaches and ensuring the integrity of legal records. Additionally, blockchain can be used to automate many legal processes, such as contract management and dispute resolution, by enabling the creation of smart contracts. As we mentioned in previous articles, smart contracts can streamline many legal processes, reducing the time and cost associated with contract management and dispute resolution. They can also help to increase the transparency and accountability of legal transactions, reducing the risk of fraud and improving the overall efficiency of legal processes.

Other Trends

The ABA survey report noticed that law firms are spending more money on legal technology than ever before. In many cases, this involved investing more in tightening cybersecurity.

The trend to work remotely and to use video conferencing for virtual meetings that started during the pandemic is ongoing.

More than ever before lawyers pay attention to their own work experience, as well as to the user experience for their clients by making their law firms more client centred. There is an ongoing focus on work-life balance, not only for the lawyers but also for the employees of law firms. Law firms are finally starting to consider things like employee satisfaction.

While billable hours remain the most used fee model, there has been a noticeable increase in lawyers using a subscription fee model.

Finally, the trend that law firms are increasingly hiring people with hybrid profiles is continuing. By increasing cognitive diversity, law firms want to close the gap between professionals with knowledge of legal matters and those with enough legal tech expertise to manage the digitization and automation of workflows. Gartner predicts that by the end of 2023, one third of corporate legal departments will have a legal tech expert in charge of managing the digital transformation and automation of internal processes. Large law firms are also increasingly hiring lawyers that are familiar with business administration.

 

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Legal IT

Web3 for Lawyers

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In this article, we have a look at Web 3 for lawyers. We answer questions like “What is Web3?” and “What are the promised benefits of Web3?”. We look at the concerns about Web3 and at how Web3 and the Metaverse relate to each other. We also pay attention at the relevance of Web3 for lawyers.

What is Web3?

Web 3 (web3, web 3.0) is the name used for what could be the next version of the Internet. Proponents claim it will be based on concepts like decentralization and blockchain technologies. The Wikipedia also includes the concept of token-based economics as a third pillar of web 3. (Think of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) as an example of token-based economics. A future article will be dedicated to token-based economics. In the past, we have already published articles on blockchain and on how it is relevant for lawyers).

But why call it web3? To understand the name, we need to look at the history of the Internet. Before the Internet was accessible to the public in the form of the World Wide Web, there was ARPANET (sometimes referred to as DARPANET). Military strategists had come to the conclusion that centralizing strategic information on just one or some computer servers could leave one vulnerable. So, instead, they built a network of computers that were connected and that replicated crucial information. The information became decentralized. As long as one server remained up and running, essential information would remain accessible.

From this came the first incarnation of the public Internet, the world wide web, which was later also referred to as Web 1.0. It was the Internet of mainly static pages, where the users were in charge of the information they put online. In this setup, the information remained decentralized, where websites were on specific web servers. Then, slowly, we saw the rise of ‘Big Tech’. When social media arrived, they dramatically changed the Internet. Facebook, e.g., became like a privately owned Internet. In this new Internet, which people started referring to as Web 2.0, the information became centralized again in the hands of the Big Tech companies. Microsoft, Google (including YouTube), Meta (Facebook, Instagram, Whatsapp), and Amazon, e.g., are responsible for most of the traffic on the Internet. These companies have tremendous amounts of information on their users, and that information is centralized on their servers. More importantly, users no longer exclusively own what they put on these social media. The Big Tech companies are in control and can use that information. One of the things they do, is monetize this information about their users for marketing purposes, where these users typically do not share in the profits.

With the arrival of cryptocurrencies, the idea of Web 3.0 was born. The purpose of cryptocurrencies was mainly to break away from the power of centralized financial institutions. Similarly, the idea for web3 was to decentralize information and to put users in charge again of their own information, while maintaining their privacy. This would be done by cutting out the Big Tech middlemen and by using the same blockchain technology that had made cryptocurrencies possible. The idea appealed and led to the creation of the Web3 Foundation.

What are the promised benefits of Web3?

By now, billions have already been invested in Web 3 and the underlying technologies. People are enthusiastic because the promises and benefits it holds. Let us have a look at those.

Web 3 will give control back to the users and let the users monetize their information instead of Big Tech. In the article in Livewire, Jeremy Laukkonen writes, “It will represent a transition from big companies controlling and monetizing content on the internet to individual creators and consumers sharing content and interacting through decentralized networks.” NFTs are an example of this, where the creator of a digital artwork is able to sell some rights to his digital artwork. This is done by assigning a unique digital token to the piece of artwork, and all transactions with regard to this token are registered in a Blockchain ledger.

Web 3 will offer increased privacy-protection

If the information is no longer shared with Big Tech companies, users are back in control over their personal data. If you make digital artwork and sell it as NFTs, e.g., the buyer does not need to know anything about you. They just need to know that the token that refers to it is authentic.

Decentralization

With decentralization, the information gets distributed over the Internet again, instead of being in the hands of a handful of Big Tech companies. Dion Hinchcliffe, in ZD Net, describes decentralization as, “the notion that instead of large sections of the Internet being owned and controlled by centralized entities, ownership is instead distributed among its builders and users.”

Technological innovation

The technologies that form the basis for Web 3 already have changed the landscape of Internet technologies. Blockchain is a prime example of that. Web 3 comes with its own set of challenges (see below), and for some of those innovative technological solutions are being proposed. These include solutions to make the Internet more environmentally friendly and sustainable energy-wise. The link between web 3 and the Metaverse also is responsible for the innovations in visual communications, network speed, etc.

Opportunities for enterprises

Commentators identify seven key areas in which Web 3 creates new opportunities for enterprises:

  1. The Metaverse is often cited as an implementation of Web3 technologies, where all its virtual marketplaces rely on them.
  2. Distributed (or Decentralized) Autonomous Organizations (DAOs). “The concept of a DAO is embodied in a smart contract, with the rules posted for all to see. Tokens are issued, and stakeholders have a well-defined decision-making process. Essentially a new type of digital corporation, DAOs can be used in an enterprise context for everything from open innovation and investment to IP-based professional services or industry-scale consortiums.” (Dion Hinchcliffe).
  3. Web3 Apps
  4. Creator Economy for Web3
  5. Crypto & Digital Assets
  6. Blockchain and Distributed Ledger (DLT)
  7. Decentralization

(For more information on this, see the article on ZD Net listed below in the sources, on how decentralization and Web3 will impact the enterprise).

Other benefits

Some advocates of Web 3 also claim it will bring increased data security (because of encryption by default) and increased scalability.

Concerns about Web3

While many people are enthusiastic about the idea of Web 3, there also are some concerns that still must be addressed. A short overview:

Regulation

As most countries by now have Internet-related legislation, the current Internet is largely regulated. That is not the case with web 3, which makes it extremely attractive to cybercriminals. In an environment that is not regulated, the risks of getting exposed to hacking, fraud, theft, harassment and bullying, the dissemination of harmful content like child abuse, unfair business practices, etc., are substantial. An unregulated Web3 is a paradise for criminals.

Environmental Impact

One of the biggest concerns about blockchain technology is its impact on the environment. Blockchain technology requires constant complex calculations that require an exorbitant amount of computing power, which in turn requires a lot of energy. An entire Internet running on Blockchain technology would have a detrimental impact on the environment. Thankfully, new technologies are already being developed that still use the idea of distributed, encrypted ledgers but that require far less computer power. Etherium, e.g., has just moved to such a new technology.

Security

One of the advantages of a centralized network is that typically more attention is being paid to security. (That is why cloud-based solutions typically are safer than technologies that are run on site). In a decentralized Internet, the users become responsible again for security. And that can be problematic. Experience has taught that users still are the most fallible factor in any security solution. (At the moment of writing this article, a hacker made headlines after successfully hacking the Uber network. All he had to was to make one authorized user believe that he was a colleague who needed access).

In a decentralized setup, all the information is in the hands of the users again. Identity theft and identity fraud will be as rampant as it is today, and probably with worse effects for the users whose identities were compromised. In fact, a recent report confirmed that social engineering attacks are already dominating the Metaverse and Web 3.

And there is more. The Pentagon also investigated blockchain technology to see if it could be useful for them. Instead, their investigation found some concerning vulnerabilities on blockchain. Their report revealed that blockchain is neither decentralized nor updated. The market that uses blockchain registered transactions only has a handful of players and it is through them that most transactions take place. On top of that, the report found that it can take a long time for certain transactions to register. That leaves the possibility open for a cybercriminal to, e.g., make a blockchain purchase and then keep on selling the same item several times to different people for as long as the transactions aren’t registered.

Negative impact on innovation

Technological innovation is being touted as one of the benefits of Web 3. But there is another side to the coin. Research has shown that decentralization tends to slow down innovation and progress because it hampers technological standardization. It’s the traditional ‘too many cooks in the kitchen’ problem. E-mail is a classic example of decentralization. After 3 decades of the world wide web, there still are no standards for e-mail encryption. If you look at something like WhatsApp or Teams, which are centralized technologies, they had secure encryption by default, shortly after they were launched.

This slowing down of innovation is one of the main reasons many Big Tech companies are revising their position on working from home.

Other controversies

Several high-profile people within Big Tech are warning that Web 3 is more of a hype or marketing buzz than reality. More importantly, they point out that there won’t be much decentralization, as at present the investments in Web 3 start-ups are all being made by a small group of investment bankers. Instead of control over the Internet being centralized in the hands of just a few Big Tech companies, control over Web 3 would be in the hands of a small group of investors and venture capitalists.

Web 3 and the Metaverse

Web3 and the Metaverse are often mentioned in the same breath. Yet, they are not the same thing. The Metaverse has to do with immersive digital worlds that are typically experienced as a virtual or enhanced reality. Web3 has to do with new technologies and concepts like decentralization and token-based economics. There is a considerable overlap, of course: virtual marketplaces that are part of the Metaverse rely heavily on web3 technologies. But one of the main differences is who the proponents of each are. The Metaverse is being promoted by Big Tech companies who see it as a way of maintaining their control, while Web3 is being promoted by investors and venture capitalists who want to cash in on our digital lives.

The relevance of web3 for lawyers

A recent conference in Austin, Texas, concluded there are nine areas where web 3 and web 3 technologies are already relevant for lawyers.

  1. Copyright laws regarding non-fungible tokens, or NFTs
  2. virtual real estate – lease or buy
  3. virtual event planning
  4. cryptocurrency theft
  5. NFT due diligence
  6. prosecuting crimes in the metaverse
  7. starting or ending a business in the metaverse
  8. metaverse marriage and divorce
  9. web3 skip-tracing / due diligence

It is worth pointing out that there already is a need for blockchain and cryptocurrency lawyers, where the demand outweighs the offer. It should also be clear that having knowledge about Web3 and the Metaverse gives lawyers a competitive advantage.

 

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Legal aspects of Non-Fungible Tokens

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Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) made world headlines in March 2021 when a digital artwork NFT was auctioned for nearly 70 million USD. NFTs represent a market that is growing fast: in the second quarter of 2021, NFT transactions already were worth 2.4 billion USD. So, what are Non-Fungible Tokens, and what are some of the legal issues when dealing with them?

The Wikipedia defines a non-fungible token as “a unique and non-interchangeable unit of data stored on a digital ledger (blockchain). NFTs can be used to represent easily-reproducible items such as photos, videos, audio, and other types of digital files as unique items (analogous to a certificate of authenticity) and use blockchain technology to establish a verified and public proof of ownership. Copies of the original file are not restricted to the owner of the NFT and can be copied and shared like any file. The lack of interchangeability (fungibility) distinguishes NFTs from blockchain cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin.”

So, key items to remember are that an NFT is a digital asset. It is a piece of software code that is entirely unique, yet transferable. That software code usually is a form of smart contract, and it is stored in a blockchain. NFTs typically have to do with digital media.

Let us use an analogy. Imagine a very famous photograph, taken back in the days before digital photography, where photos were still taken on celluloid film. Next, imagine that the original first print of the photograph or the original negative is being auctioned by the original photographer or somebody who acts on their behalf. You get an authentic piece of art, even authenticated by the artist. You can hang it in your house, or you can sell it. But that does not mean you get the copyrights on that piece of art. The original photographer still keeps the rights to reproduce, license, etc.

NFTs are something similar, but specifically created for digital media rather than physical media. The problem with digital media is that they can be infinitely copied and distributed without any loss of quality. NFTs were created as a way to make sure the original artists can benefit from their artwork. When you buy an NFT, you get an authenticated replica of a digital medium that is unique. It is a smart contract that contains certain terms and condition, e.g., to make sure that the original artists, e.g., gets a royalty when the NFT is sold. The smart contract is executed automatically each time there is a transaction that is registered in the blockchain, e.g., when an NFT is sold to a new owner. In other words, an NFT is a non-replicable digital certificate of ownership of a copy of a digital creative work.

It is worth repeating that while the NFT gives you ownership of a copy of a digital artwork, it does not transfer any intellectual property on the original digital artwork to the owner of the NFT, other than the license to own a copy of it. So, why do people by them? Because they are collector’s items that are authenticated and unique, that cannot be modified or amended, yet are transferable. As such, they can also be used as investments.

NFTs are fairly new, and legislation worldwide still has to catch up with the phenomenon. There are several legal issues that have to be considered.

Are NFTs legal? The answer to this question will vary from country to country. But, generally speaking, if there are no laws in place, they should be considered legal. Some countries have already enacted some legislation. Other are likely to follow, which may change what about NFTs is legal and what is not. But there are several caveats, discussed below.

Proof of ownership happens through the Blockchain. The combination of a public key and a private key allows the NFT to be decrypted and provide the necessary information.

Data hosting and storage: the NFT functions as a certificate of ownership of copy of a digital artwork that is stored somewhere, and typically the code of the NFT links to the stored copy. Problems can arise if the storage ends or the link to the storage changes because it is not possible to update a blockchain entry. So, the smart contract code has to explicitly allow transactions to modify the location of the digital artwork.

Smart Contracts: NFTs are smart contracts. The caveat here is that smart contracts usually only work on a specific platform. What about sales on a different platform?

Royalties: since an NFT is a smart contract, it is possible to include code that a fee is automatically paid to the original artist each time the NFT is sold. But, as mentioned above, what about sales on a different platform than the one where the smart contract originated?

Data Protection Laws: Exercising the personal rights to be erased or to modify or correct personal information appear to be incompatible with the immutable nature of the blockchain. In other words, NFTs that contain personal information may violate data protection laws. It may be wise to include non-executable code in the smart contract that clarifies that the people involved have agreed to have their personal information included as it is.

Intellectual Property Laws: as mentioned above, the buyer of an NFT by default does not acquire the intellectual property rights that are associated with the digital artwork. The buyer may not be fully aware of this or its implications. They may, e.g., not be aware that they are not allowed to make copies of the digital artwork or to use it in a publication, which may then constitute a potential intellectual property infringement liability.

Money Laundering: NFTs can be sold for exorbitant amounts of money. Add to that, that they may be sold using cryptocurrencies. There are valid concerns that the transactions of NFTs are being used to circumvent money laundering legislation.

Estate & succession: NFTs are typically linked to specific individuals. What happens to the NFT when the owner of the NFT dies? The immutable nature of the blockchain will not allow to recognize the heirs as new owners.

Unregistered securities: NFTs can be used as investments and there already are NFT marketplaces that allow several traders to take part simultaneously in the acquisition of NFTs. In other words, the new owners all get a share of the NFT. Some argue that in these circumstances, NFTs could be regarded as unregistered securities.

Taxation: the market for NFTs is worldwide. The artist may be in one country, the transaction may happen in another country, while the buyer may reside in yet another one. Transactions of NFTs may therefore be subject to double taxation.

The market of NFTs is expanding faster than anybody predicted. NFTs offer great opportunities, both for the creators of digital artwork, as well as for collectors and investors. But clearly, there still are multiple legal issues that need to be addressed.

 

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Legal IT

More on Smart Contracts

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In a previous article on smart contracts, we explained in detail what smart contracts are, and gave some examples. In today’s article we will focus on some of the challenges, and on recent evolutions that addressed those challenges.

Let us first quickly recap what smart contracts are. Michael Matthews defines a smart contract as “a software program that automates the execution of contract terms. It applies to only the performance of executable terms of a contract. Smart contracts do not replace natural language contracts but instead function as a program that connects to a natural language contract through an addendum that establishes an inviolable link between the program and a natural language contract.” Additionally, while smart contracts are automated contracts, what sets them apart from other automated contracts is the usage of Blockchain technology, which registers the contract and its transactions in distributed ledger.

Traditional contracts have certain disadvantages, which often leads to them being contested in court. They are open to interpretation. They are not machine-readable, and e.g., do not have any meta-data that could provide unambiguous clear data. They are also not self-executable, which quite often would make things more efficient. So, the solution seems simple: create machine readable contracts that can self-execute. The whole process can be automated, and the transactions are trusted and registered. The results is higher efficiency and fewer disputes.

Smart contracts, however, come with their own set of challenges. A first challenge is that imprecise data don’t compute. Typically, smart contracts contain conditions that must be met before certain actions are automatically executed. Those conditions must be sufficiently specific and verifiable for the program to evaluate whether they are met.

A related challenge lies in contradictory language. Just as the data must be specific enough, so must the language that specifies the conditions and actions be unambiguously clear. “When stocks are low”, is not sufficiently clear. But it can’t be defined as “below 20%” on one occasion in the contract, and as “below 15%” on another one.

A third challenge has to do with creating logic parameters. When using a Blockchain ledger, transactions are usually registered in real-time. The problem is that the processing of the data by the parties involved doesn’t always happen in real time. The data could be processed, e.g., once a day, or once an hour… This has to be taken in account, which means parameters have to be determined on how and when to process the data to avoid incongruent data sets, which can’t generate a consensus for a contractual condition.

A fourth challenge consists of anticipating data glitches and gaps. Programs contains bugs, and they also cannot anticipate all conditions that might arise. (A lockdown because of the Coronavirus, e.g., may prevent certain tasks from being executed, even if all previously existing necessary conditions are met).

A fifth challenge had to do with scalability. Processing Blockchain transactions requires considerable computing power, as well as sufficient network speed. More complex transactions require more processing power, and much higher network speed to which only some large entities have access.

An inherent risk with all Blockchain-based technologies is the centralization risk. The strength of Blockchain technology lies in its decentralized ledgers. Tsui S. Ng, in an article for the American Bar Association, rightfully points out that there is a risk “if power is concentrated into a small number of hands. Such concentration means that a group of bad actors may conspire together to approve malicious transactions.”

A last challenge has to do with usability. Just as traditional contracts are written in natural language that machines have difficulties interpreting, smart contracts are primarily written in code and therefore not easily readable by the average lawyer. Tools are needed to bridge the usability gap.

Since we wrote our previous article, nearly two years ago, a lot of progress has been made in addressing these challenges. As a result, the use of smart contracts is constantly and rapidly rising. In his article, Eduard Kotysh points out that the technology is maturing, that new and improved tools are becoming available, and that because the problems are systematically being addressed, trust is building. He concludes that “the ecosystem has gathered enough momentum with the media and events worldwide to hit a critical mass to go viral.” Another important evolution is that the technology has become more accessible.

These evolutions are largely due to the creation of several consortia that collaborate on establishing international platforms, protocols and frameworks for smart contracts and Blockchain backed transactions. Once such platform, e.g., is OpenLaw (www.openlaw.io) which started as a joint US and Swiss open source project that allows lawyers to make legally binding and self-executing agreements on the Ethereum blockchain.

Ethereum is one of the leading platforms for smart contracts and was specifically designed for that purpose. Tsui S. Ng: “Although traditional cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin, can store and transfer value, Ethereum is also capable of carrying data in the form of arguments, which means that the platform can be programmed to take a specific action once certain conditions are met. Thus, contracts can be programmed to be self-executing because the platform can send money once the specified conditions are satisfied. Theoretically, given enough time, the platform will eventually be able to solve any computable problem. However, in practice, how well the platform runs depends upon network speed and memory.”

Smart contracts have become so popular, that they even have their own programming languages, of which Solidity is most popular. Another sign of how much the technology has matured is that platforms are being created, such as Solidified, that focus on auditing smart contracts.

In summary, smart contracts are changing how legal matters and contracts are drafted. Michael Matthews points out that this inherently implies that we are finding new ways of working: instead of focusing on risk and liability, like traditional contracts do, with smart contracts we focus on the outcome parties desire. He predicts that in the future, smart contracts will force a new methodology, that of outcome-based thinking.

 

 

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Legal IT

An introduction to smart contracts

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In a previous article, we have written about Artificial Intelligence (AI) and contracts. AI is having an impact in three areas when it comes to contracts: 1. contract review, 2. contract management and automation, and 3. smart contracts. While smart contracts are automated contracts, what sets them apart from other automated contracts is the usage of Blockchain technology.

What are smart contracts? We’ll combine elements from the definitions Tech Republic and the Investopedia to explain: A smart contract is a software-based contract between a buyer and a seller. The software automates the business processes and the conditions of fulfilment contained within the contract. The code programmed into the contract actually makes the contract self-executing so that it takes action whenever a specific condition is triggered within the contract. The code and the agreements contained therein exist across a distributed, decentralized Blockchain network. Smart contracts permit trusted transactions and agreements to be carried out among disparate, anonymous parties without the need for a central authority, legal system, or external enforcement mechanism. They render transactions traceable, transparent, and irreversible. Because the smart contract is software capable of automating business processes and contract fulfilment automatically, it eliminates the need for managers and middlemen supervision.

Let’s give an example: A is a supplier of products for B. Every month, B places an order with A. It makes sense to automate this process. The smart contract is a piece of software that, e.g., would contain the code that says if an order is received by A from B, and B is not in arrears, then that order must be executed. Now, with smart contracts these transactions are typically registered in a distributed, decentralized Blockchain network of ledgers. In a previous article we explained that Blockchain is a technology that registers transactions in a ledger, where everybody in the network has a copy of that ledger. Transactions are secured by using a verification code that is calculated based on all previous transactions in the ledger. In essence, to forge a transaction, one would therefore have to forge all registrations of all transactions in all ledgers.

The benefits of smart contracts are clear: the whole process of transactions between parties can be automated, and by using Blockchain technology one has virtually irrefutable proof of the transactions. Add to that that programming code tends to be less ambiguous than the generic legalese of traditional contracts, so the chances of disputes about the interpretation of smart contracts are smaller.

The usage of smart contracts is expected to grow fast. A survey published in Forbes Magazine predicts that by 2022, 25% of all companies will be using them. Basically in any market where Blockchain technology is useful, one can expect smart contracts to be useful, too.  Smart contracts can also be the perfect complement to E.D.I. At present, smart contract applications are already being used in – or developed for – supply chains and logistics, in finance and securities, real estate, management and operations, healthcare, insurance, etc.

Still, one has to be aware of the limitations of smart contracts, as there are a number of legal issues to take into account. The name ‘smart contracts’ is misleading in that they aren’t really contracts but software. As such, there are legal concerns with regard to:

  • Offer and acceptance: is there even a binding contract, if there is no human interaction or supervision, and the transaction is completely executed automatically?
  • The evidentiary value: smart contracts are not written evidence of agreed rights and obligations because they encapsulate only a portion of any rights and obligations that is related to contractual performance
  • Jurisdiction: is the area of jurisdiction clearly defined in case of a conflict or dispute?
  • Dispute Resolution: are there any dispute resolution mechanisms in place?

When considering working with smart contracts, it is therefore a good idea to first come to a framework agreement in which these issues are addressed. And those will preferably still be written by lawyers.

 

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Legal IT

Blockchain and the Law

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In our previous article, we explained what Blockchain is. In this follow-up article, we look at how it is pertinent for lawyers. In short, it is relevant in two ways: on the one hand, there are the legal aspects of using Blockchain: Blockchain is changing the way things are done in several industries, and lawyers active in those fields should be prepared for that. On the other hand, there already are new legal applications, like e.g. smart contracts, that are built on Blockchain. We can expect many more of those to come.

Legal aspects of Blockchain

A lot of the work lawyers do, has to do with helping to facilitate the secure transfers of assets. Blockchain was developed for exactly that purpose: it creates real-time digital records that verify and confirm that the transactions, detailing such transfers of assets, did happen at a certain time, and in a specific order. In other words, Blockchain offers proof that at present is as good as irrefutable.

In his book Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin Is Changing Money, Business and the World, Dan Tapscott states: “anything of value – money, but also titles, deeds, identities, even votes – can be moved, stored and managed securely and privately. Trust is established through mass collaboration and clever code rather than by powerful intermediaries like governments and banks.”

Blockchain has already started disrupting markets, and is expected to affect many more industries. In fact, it has the potential to affect most of them. The most obvious example is the world of finance, where Bitcoin and Blockchain started. Thanks to Blockchain, virtual currencies are a reliable alternative to traditional currencies. Blockchain is also being used in post trade settlements (Securities). Intellectual property, too, is a prime candidate for a Blockchain overhaul: applications are already being developed with regard to digital rights management which will affect music, eBooks, and other online content you purchase or rent. For trademarks, too, Blockchain technology can prove that a certain trademark was registered by a specific party at a specific date. Applications that rely on the Blockchain technology are being developed for real estate (transfer of title deeds), health care (patient data), insurance, energy (peer to peer market for energy), digital voting, gambling, etc.

If you, as a lawyer, represent clients in Blockchain-affected industries, you’ll need to get acquainted with how Blockchain affects those industries. Doing it early offers a competitive edge, as you become a greater resource as trusted adviser to your clients.

As Blockchain is changing the way business is being done, we can also expect the law to start regulating the use of Blockchain. A recent example of this was in the US, where the SEC made a ruling on 25 July 2017 in a case of an ICO, i.e. an Initial Coin Offering:  instead of launching an IPO (Initial Public Offering), a company wished to raise capital using a cryptocurrency instead of US dollars. The SEC ruled that “federal securities laws apply to those who offer and sell securities in the United States, regardless whether the issuing entity is a traditional company or a decentralized autonomous organization, regardless whether those securities are purchased using U.S. dollars or virtual currencies, and regardless whether they are distributed in certificated form or through distributed ledger technology.”

Legal applications using Blockchain

One of the areas where Blockchain is expected to make great strides is ‘smart contracts.’ OpenLaw, e.g., is a joint US and Swiss project that is working on a smart contract platform that will allow lawyers to make legally binding, and self-executing agreements. The platform uses Ethereum, which is an alternative to Bitcoin but is also built on Blockchain. In a first step, lawyers can choose one of many contract templates that can then be further customized online. If the parties for whom the contract is made agree, they can confirm and activate the contract on the Ethereum Blockchain, and then have the contract self-execute its key agreements via the same Blockchain.

Smart contracts are expected to start pitching up everywhere. For this reason, on 15 August 2017, a new legal Blockchain consortium, called the Global Legal Blockchain Consortium (GLBC), was launched. An array of law firms and leading legal tech companies are involved, and their goal is to discuss and consider the issues around the use of Blockchain and smart contracts.

All of this creates new opportunities for lawyers: your law firm can become a Smart Contract Firm, or a Smart Contract Mediator, and/or a Smart Title Company. Individual lawyers can become ‘Distributed Ledger Lawyers’ who are Blockchain law and policy advisors.

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An introduction to blockchain

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You probably have heard about Bitcoin, and you may have heard about the underlying technology, Blockchain, too. But, if your clients asked you what Bitcoin and Blockchain are, could you explain it to them? In this first of two articles, we’ll explore what Blockchain is. In a follow-up article, we will look what its relevance is for lawyers.

Bitcoin is probably the best-known cryptocurrency. A cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that uses encryption techniques to a) regulate the generation of units of currency, and b) to verify the transfer of funds. What is important about these virtual currencies is that, unlike regular currencies, they operate independently of any government or central bank. Blockchain is the technology that was developed to make this possible. And the technology has the potential to revolutionise the way we do business.  Some experts even predict that Blockchain will replace the Internet for doing business online. Add to that, that Blockchain technology is not just useful for virtual currencies. Many other uses are possible, including legal ones like self-executing smart contracts.

To understand what Blockchain is, it is necessary to understand why it was created in the first place, and that is to solve the problem of “double spend”. If I go to a bookstore and buy a printed book, the book is physically transferred from the bookstore to me. The bookstore no longer has that copy, I have. And it’s possible for the bookstore to run out of copies. But if I buy an eBook online, things are different. What I get is a copy, and the online bookstore I got it from can still sell an unlimited amount of copies. Digital products can be copied, infinitely. And that creates a special problem for digital currencies. What prevents me from spending one amount of 20 € three times, online? In this example, the bank does: if I go to an online store and spend 20 €, the bank will take that amount off my account and hand it over, often through intermediaries like credit card companies, to the store owner. But the whole purpose of Bitcoin was to be able to operate without any central bank or government. So, how can we make sure one Bitcoin isn’t spent more than once by the same owner? Blockchain is the technology that was invented to solve that problem. The way it is done, is by creating a secure register or ledger that keeps track of all transactions, and of which copies are distributed over a peer-to-peer network.

Blockchain can be described as a distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of a distributed data structure and algorithms, which create a decentralized ledger or registry of transactions, which is both permanent / immutable, and secure.

A distributed ledger technology

Instead of keeping one central register or ledger, Blockchain consists of a decentralized network of volunteer-run nodes, each of which keep an identical copy of the register. (The idea was that, to work with bitcoins, you need a bitcoin wallet, and every owner of a wallet should have a copy of the register). Each transaction that is registered gets a timestamp, and the network uses algorithms that ‘vote’ on the order in which transactions occur, and ensures that each transaction is unique.

Blockchain is secure and permanent / immutable

“Once a majority of nodes reaches consensus that all transactions in the recent past are unique (that is, not double spent), they are cryptographically sealed into a block. Each new block is linked to previously sealed blocks to create a chain of accepted history, thereby preserving a verified record of every spend.” (ZDNet). This ‘cryptographic sealing’ uses hash functions and digital signatures that work in one way only. Let’s take an example: on 4 August 2017, at 8:15:0000 AM UCT, wallet X transfers 1 bitcoin to wallet Y. Just as is the case with an online money transfer, this information is structured in a specific way. To that set of data, a one-way encryption is applied, that is irreversible. The result of the encryption is a unique string, let’s say, fictitiously, W(#MD31NAP^FV12. It is impossible to read from that string who paid what to whom. But if X claims he paid Y 1 bitcoin on 4 August 2017, at 8:15:0000 AM UCT, to Y, then the ‘key’ will have to be W(#MD31NAP^FV12. So, if that key is found in the ledger matching that timestamp, it is irrefutable proof that indeed that transaction occurred in that way. If X claims he paid 2 bitcoins, then the key would be different.

Blockchain uses ‘consensus algorithms’ to make sure each transaction is unique, which is needed in case of conflicting data. Because of the algorithms it uses, Blockchain comes as close to being unhackable as currently is possible. And while there have been instances where Bitcoin was hacked, Blockchain itself, i.e. the underlying technology, has not. Still, the consensus mechanism has one inherent risk, which has been called the 51%-problem. The nodes in the network vote by majority. If a hacker would succeed in taking over 51% of the nodes in the network, then he could start manipulating the votes to change records, i.e. replace them by modified ones. It would still be a hard thing to accomplish, extra security mechanisms have been built in. Which leads us to the next item.

Blockchain is permanent and immutable: each block of data in the Blockchain is time-stamped, and can only be added to the chain after the time stamp is applied and verified by the distributed computers across the chain. The practical effect of this is that a block of data can never be changed retrospectively, as all subsequent records would have to be modified as well.

Blockchain has many advantages: its decentralization makes it independent and secure. Because the whole process is managed by algorithms and no human interventions are necessary, the transaction fees are lower, and transactions themselves can be conducted more quickly.

In short, Blockchain technology has the potential to disrupt several markets, and lawyers will have to be prepared for that. There already are legal applications for the technology, as well. We will have a look at all of that, in a follow-up article.

 

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